Notes in History. 



ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT 



OF- 



MODERN EUROPEAN NATIONS, 




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^N'oTES IN History. 



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ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT 



OF 




DERN EUROPEAN NATIONS. 



By GEORQE W. WARD, Ph.D. 

Professor of Ristory and Politics, 

WESTERN MARYLAND COLLEGE. 




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Part I. The Teutonic Peoples Invade the Empire. 



LECTURE I. DECLINE OF THE ROMAN EHPIRE. 

1. Introductory. — Perhaps no better illustration of the law that cessation of 
progress is decline can be found than the Roman Empire. From the day that Rome 
began the subjugation of the Samnites anri the acquisition of territory by conquest, 
Roman legions were almost continuously adding new lands, till in the time of Hadrian 
(117-138 A. D ) the boundaries'of the Roman Empire extended from the Atlantic Ocean 
to the Euphrates (over 3,000 miles), and from Britain (Wall of Antoninus,) to the 
deserts of Africa (nearly, 2,000 miles). (Tacitus, Annales 1, 2. Gibbon, end C;h. I.) 

2. Greatest Extent of the Empire.— With the change from republic to empire, 
Rome changed also her policy. Augustus advised the Romans to cease from conquest 
and devote themselves to the peaceful government of their world empire. Britain was 
the only province added during the first century. Then in the reign of Trajan (98-117 
A. D.) Dacia (where?) was added. (Column of I'rajan.) But with the conquest of the 
Parthians in the Eist by the same emperor, the boundaries of the empire reached their 
utmost limit. (Gibbon, Ch. II.) 

3. First Loss of Territory. — The first act of Trajan's successor (Hadrian 117-138 
A. D.) was to restore the independence of the I'artiiiaus. It was then a new thing for 
Rome to lose territory to her enemies; .«oon this became her continual and ever- 
increasing necessity. Thus Rome reached hei- climax under the Antonines. With the 
accession of Coinmodus, decline goes on apace. Moral depravity complete. (Gibbon, 
Ch. IV. Capes's The Age of the Antonines.) 

-I. What was the Roman Empire? — An empire is, in theory, a confederation of 
kingdoms more or less independent, according as they are powerful enougli to defy the 
empire or weak enougli to be held bv it in complete subjugation. This definition the 
world learned from Rome. Alexander might have taugiit the lesson 300 years earlier, 
but what would have become an empire died in infancy at the death of its creator, no 
one being found pi)werful enough to hold the member-kingdoms in even nominal sub- 
jection. (Bryce's Holy Roman Empire, Chs. I, II.) 

5. MrcMBER-KiNGDOMS OF RoME. — Auioug the kingdoms (provinces) over which the 
Roman Empire exercised authority — sometimes very feeble, sometimes almost com- 
plete — may be mentioned Spain, France (Gaul), England (Britain), Austria Hungary as 
far as the D.inube, Switzerland, Italy, Greece, Turkey, Syria, Persia, Egypt, Tunis, 
Tripoli, Algeria, and Morocco. Germany was never conquered by the Roman arms or 
■Roman law, and but imperfectly subjected to the Roman Cliurch. (Mommsen's The 
Provinces, &c., Emerton's Introduction to the Sludij of the Middle Ages, Ch. I.) 

LECTURE W. APPEARANCE OF THE TEUTONS. 

1. The Teutones and the Cimbri, B. C. 102, 101. — See "Rome," Lecture XIX, 
Sec. 7. 

2. Caesar and the Teutons. — About half a century after Marius had crushed the 
Teutones and Cimbri, who had probably wandered from the northern shores of Ger- 
many, the German chief so celebrated in Caesar's writings crossed the Rhine into Giul. 
Ariovistus liad been invited over by the Sequaui to aid them against the ^Edui. 
Having performed this service well, Ariovistus declined to leave liis new friends, and 
the Sequaui in terror applied to Caesar. Ariovistus was overthrown and soon died of a 



6" THE TEUTONIC PEOPLES INVADE THE EMPIRE. 

wound, but Csesar was never able to gain a footing on the German side of the Rhine. 
Germans from this time greatly influenced by Rome. German Soldxebs Enlist in the 
Roman Armies. 

3. The BA-rrLE of Teutoburg Forest, 9 A, L). — Rome had repelled with ease the 
infrequent invasions made by the restle.ss tribes 'from the unknown forests beyond the 
Rhine and the Danube. At last a systematic attempt was to be made to conquer Ger- 
many. It was Rome's turn to invade Her territory had never before been invaded 
by any people that did not sooner or later pay for its insolence by submission to lier. 
Augustus sent Tiberius to subdue the Germans. The attempt had nearly succeeded 
when Tiberius died. Then arose the great German leader, Hermann, who once more 
united the quarelitig tribes, led the Roman general. Varus, into an ambush in the 
Teutoburg Forest (where?), destroyed his three legions almost to a man, and saved the 
German peoples forever from Roman domination. (Creasy, ch. V.) • 

4. Invasions under Germamcus, 14-16 A. D. — The Ronians soon raised other 
legions, and in 14 A. D. Germanicus was sent to push the invasion. The next year, 
Thusnelda, wife of Hermann, was captured and sent a prisoner to Rome. Again the 
young chief sought the captors of his wif- in Teutoburg Forest, but this time Hermann 
was defeated. Germanicus lost so heavily in tlie two victories which he gained the 
next year that he was compelled to leave Germany. End of Roman invasion. Romans 
steadily gain influence and some territory east of the Rhine. 

5. Germans become Acquaintkd with Rome — Communication between the Ro- 
mans and the Teutons constantly increased, especially by way of the numerous military 
stations and trading posts established by the Romans on the frontier. Many flourish- 
ing German towns of the present day owe their origin to such Roman establishments. 
Number of Germans in the Roman armies steadily increased. (Caesar's Commentaries). 

6. The Marcomanni return the Compliment, 166-180 A. D. — It was now the turn 
of the Germans to invade. During the reign of Marcus Aurelius the powerful Mar- 
comanni made war on the Empire for thirteen years. It was during his camp life in 
these wars that Marcus Aurelius wrote his immortal "Meditations." ("Rome," Lect. 
Axiv., 7.) He died before the frontier was secured, and his worthless son, Commodus, 
bought off the Germans with a tribute. With this act begins the conflict which ends 
in the territorial supremacy of the barbarians — the barbarian conquest of Roman ter- 
ritory, the institutional supremacy of Rome. (Gibbon, Ch. III.) 

LECTURE III. THE GERMANS.. 

1. The "Germania." — We are introduced to theGermans in their native forests by 
Csesar. About 150 years later Tacitus wrote his "Treatise on the Situation, Manners, 
and Inhabitants of Germany." (Read liis treatise: Harper's Tacitu.s, II , 286. 2.5 pp). 
In .spite of the severe criticisms of this work, the Germania, with a few reasonble 
qualifications, must be accepted as a correct picture of German life and institutions at 
the end of the first century of our era. 

2. Germany. — Germany is pretty nearly a natural division. With the ocean on 
the north, the Rhine on the west, the Alps and Danube on the south, it was only in 
the east tliat Germany could gain or lose very much territory. Rome proved unable 
to break these natural barriers behind wliich the Germans have held their position 
from the earliest times. Germany's protracted and desperate effort to do so ended in 
complete failure — and worse: the successful unification of both Germany and Italy 
was delayed more than 600 years, having been accomplished only one generation ago. 
(Lect. XX, 6.) 

•i. The Germans. — (a; The name (from Wehr mann, warrior (?), first adopted by a 
small tribe to terrify its enemies, afterwards spread to the whole race {Oermania 2). 
Germans rarely intermarried with any other races, hence their distinct type: "eyes 



8 THE TEUTONir PEOPLES INVADE THE EMPIRE. 

stern and blue, ruddy hair; large bodies, powerful in sudden exertions, but impatient 
of toil and labor, least of all capable of sustaining thirst and heat. (Ch. IV.) (b) 
Elected a king by raising him on a shield. Women had great influence. Important 
matters settled in meeting of whole community. All business done under arms. 
Leader disgraced if surpassed in valor, (c) Pure family life; "almost singly among 
the barbarians, they content themselves with one wife." " The wife does not bring a 
dowry to her husband, but receives one from him." "Men and women are alike unac- 
quainted with clandestine correspondence." "Adultery is extremely rare ; its punish- 
ment is instant." " Late marriage insisted upon — scandalous to marry before age of 
twenty. (Caesar's Gallic Wars VI , 21.) (d) No distinction betwten free and slave 
children. "They lie together amidst the .same cattle, upon the same ground, till age 
separates, and valor marks out the free born." "As soon as tliey rise from sleep, which 
they usually protract till late in the day, they bathf, usual y in warm water, as cold 
weather chiefly prevails there. After bathing they take their meal, each on a distinct 
seat, and at a separate table. Then they proceed, armed, to business; and not less 
frequently to convivial parties, in which it is no disgrace to pass days and nights, 
without intermission, in drinking. The frequent quarrels that arise among them when 
intoxicated, seldom terminate in abusive language, but more frequently in blood." 
(e) '"Their funerals are without parade. The only circumstance to which they attend 
is to burn the bodies of eminent persons with some particular kind of wood. The arms 
of the deceased, and sometimes his horse, are given to the flames. The tomb is a 
mound of turf." (f) Among the Catti valor is so much admired that they do not shave 
the beard or trim the hair till they have proved their manhood by slaying an enemy 
in battle. Some wear an iron ring or chain till they merit liberty by slaying an enemy. 
g) Tacitus scouts the stories current among the Germans that two of their tribes, the 
Hellusii and the O-xionae, had "human faces, with the bodies and limbs of wild beasts," 
and many other like fables. (Emerton, Ch. II. Gibbon, Ch. IX.) 

LECTURE IV. FROn COMMODUS TO THE GREAT niQRATlONS. 

1. Power of the Army. — From the accession of the dissolute Commodus, the 
power of the army rapidly increased. The army had been the foundation of the em- 
pire; it was rapidly becoming the empire itself. Upon the assassination of Commodus 
the Praetorians offer the empire for sale. From this time the army becomes the real 
power, the Emperor only the instrument. Septimus Severus (193 A. D.) led the army 
on the frontiers, leaving the Prefect of the Praetorians to rule in Rome. The chief, 
supported by the legions, was nominal emperor — title, Imperator. (Gibbon, Ch. V., 
VL, VII.) 

2. Renewed Invasions. — About fifty years later the Germans were again pressing 
into the Empire in considerable numbers, the Franks in Gaul, the Goths (now first 
known to the Romans) on the Danube, and the Alamanni in Italy itself. They were 
driven back now, but under Aurelian (270-275 A. D.) Rome was stripped of Dacia,and 
the Teutons pushed as far south as the Metarus. Claudius Gothicus. (Gibbon, Ch. 
VIII., X., XI.) 

3. Division of the Empire. — With the accession of Diocletian (284 A. D.), the 
old republican offices lose all significance and the Empire is modeled after the oriental 
despotism. Now begins the separation between Rome and the East, issuing in the 
discredit of the pagan religions, the establishment of a new religion and Empire at 
Constantinople, and the complete subjection of Rome to the Praetorians. (Gibbon, 
XII.) 

4. Fall of Rome. — Henceforth the Emperor in the West is a puppet ; the general 
of the army rules Italy. If Rome fell this was her fall. The East had ever been 
the center of civilization ; when Rome ceased to be the military center of the world, 
therefore, "her fall was deep aiid rapid. She ceased to be mistress even of the West, 
and sank, politically at least, into the rank of a mere provincial city." (Merivale). 
(Gibbon, Ch. XIV., XVII., XV1II.,XIX.) 



10 THK TEUTONIC PEOPLES INVADE THE EMPIRE. 

5. Decline of Military Power. — The seat of Empire had been chautied because 
Constantinople had become not only the center of civilization but was also the natural 
defence of the Empire against the Persians or the Goths. Under this false notion of 
security Rome gave herself up to luxury and ease. From this time the army was 
composed chiefly of barbarians. Rome henceforth supported by barbarians under 
Roman institutions and forms against barbarians under Teutonic institutions and forms. 
Separation of East and West complete by 364 A.D. — Valentinian I. Emperor in the 
West, Valens in the East. The Romans with difficulty hold in check the Germans 
from the North. (Gibbon, XXII., XXIII., XXIV., XXV.) 

6. The Papacy.— On the ruins of tlie old imperial power the church rapidly built 
up the papacy. Rome rarely saw the emperor ; slie was in daily contact with the 
Bishop (called Pope from about 400 A. D.) (Gibbon, XV., XVI , XX., XXI.) 

LECTURE V. THE GREAT niORATIONS, 375 A. D. 

1. Causes. — {a) Hunger. It has been estimated that people in the pastoral stage 
require for subsistence an average of 50,000 acres per individual. But whether from 
necessity or not, the Teutons of the fourth century appear to have been a restless, 
roving, warlike people. With such habits, a rapidly increasing population, and scant 
food supply from crops, it may be that the bountifully fed empire became an attrac- 
tion too strong to be resisted. (&) Migratory Wave. Perhaps it would be difficult to 
say what sets in motion the first tribe; but after that, each tribe driven out in turn 
drives out another. This wavelike motion will probably continue till a tribe either 
finds unoccupied land or a weaker tribe which may be subjugated and its lands appro- 
priated. ("Eastern Civilizations and Greece," Lect. VIII, 3 5.) (c) Plunder. The 
Goths had perhaps learned enough of the empire to understand and crave its wealth. 
AmoQg the strongest incentives to war in ancient times was plunder. As compared 
with the poverty-stricken tribes of the Russian and German plains, the old and wealthy 
civilization of the empire offered a prize not to be neglected. 

2. Situation of the Barbarians in the Fourth Century. — (Consult map, pp. 24, 
25.) The Alani (probably Teutonic^ lay on tlie Black Sea, the East Goths came next in 
southwestern Russia, then the West Goths in the Danube bow — eastern Hungary — with 
the Vandals to the northwest, /. e., in southern Germany. Far to the east and just 
entering Europe lay the Huns. 

3. The Huns. — A Mongolian people whose origin is not certainly known. They 
appear to have crossed Asia all the way from China. (Cf. DeQuincey's Revolt of the 
Tartars.) They are described as tlie most repulsive creatures of that dark and repul- 
sive age. Small of stature, hideously ugly — even to deformity — living on horse flesh 
(whether killed or found dead mattered not), spending nearly all their time on horse- 
back, and stopping at no cruelty in war, the Huns might well be called by the priests 
of a little later time "the Scourge of God." (Gibbon, Ch. XXVI. Ammianus Marcel- 
linns). 

4. The West Goths ArrACKED by the Huns. — For more than a century the rest- 
less barbarians north of the Danube had been making forays into the eastern empire. 
During this long time it seems that they must have discovered not only the wealth of 
plunder oft'ered by the empire, but also its inherent weakness "The fall of the Roman 
Empire may justly be dated from the reign of Valens" (364-378 A. D). It was in this 
reign that the storm so long gathering on the northern horizon burst in all its destruc- 
tive fury upon the institutions and civilization of the empire. The Huns crossing the 
Volga, conquered the Alani, and all together fell ui)ori the East Goths wlio, more in 
terror than in attack, burst into the territory of the West Goths. These, on account of 
the pressure from the north, could only move in one direction — into the empire. 

5. Crossing the Danube, 376 A. D. — The Goths sent an embassy to Valens 
begging for land. It was granted on the hard conditions that the barbarians (1) give 



12 THE TEUTONIC PEOPLES INVADE THE EMPIRE. 

up their arms, and (2) give up their children to be held as hostages in Asia Minor and 
educated by the Romans. (Gibbon, III, 31.) The asking was a mere form, the grant- 
ing a necessity. Though the Danube was a mile wide and the crossing effected with 
great difficulty, probably not less than a million barbarians — women, children, and 
slaves included — entered the empire at this time. 

6. Battle of Adrianople. 378 A. D. — The conditions were soon violated. Roman 
officers meddling and Gothic warriors resenting. Soon a general uprising. At Adrian- 
ople (where?) the Goths were met by Valens. The Goths were victorious. Valens 
was slain, and the Empire was henceforth little more than a name. The so-called 
Emperor, Theodosius I., made peace with the Goths and absolute destruction was post- 
poned indefinitely. 

LECTURE VI. THE QOTHS. 

1. Who Were the Goths? — Teutonic — originally from Scandinavia (?) First 
mentioned in history about the time of Alexander the Great. Tacitus knew them as 
the Gothones (Germania, ch. 43,) living not far from the Baltic Sea. (Not the Gothoni, 
a non-Germanic people living farther south.) When or how they reached the shores 
of the Black Sea where they next appear over two centuries later is not known. 

2. Early History of the Goths. — Early in the third century they invaded Dacia 
(where?) then a Roman province. From tliat time the Empire was never secure. The 
Goths soon built a fleet (500 vessels?) with which they patrolled the Mgea,n Sea, took 
Piraecus, and threatened to make themselves masters of the East. Before the end of 
the century (272) they had driven the Romans out of Dacia. For the next hundred 
years they gave little trouble, but by 367 they have been stirred up l>y the Huns and 
soon after enter the Empire by permission, 376 A. D. It was about this time that the 
division into East Goths and West Goths became generally recognized. {De Hebus 
Geticis of Jordanes. Art. "Goths" by Freeman in Encyc. Brit. X., 846-854.) 

3. JoKDANES. Time of Justinian — middle of the sixth century. Historian of the 
Goths. He was secretary to the chief of a barbarian confederation on tlie lower 
Danube. Later he became a monk. Spent his declining years in Italy, but was not 
bishop of Ravenna as so often stated. His most imporlant work — a sort of com- 
pendium of Cassidorus's The Origin and Actions of the GotJis, now lost, is known as 
the De Rehus Geticis. The oldest known manuscript of this book perished by fire in 
the house of Professor Mommsen. Jordanes is much of a sycophant, currying favor 
with both Romans and Goths by praising first one, then the other. (Art. "Jordanes," 
Encyc. Brit.) 

4. Ulfilas (WuLFiLAS, Little Wolf) 311-381 A. D. The apostle to the Goths. 
Converted to Christianity. Made a bishop. Translated the Bible (except the Samuels 
and the Kings, Why ?) into Gothic. This Gothic Bible is the oldest writing in the 
Teutonic language. Hence Ulfilas has been called '"the father of Teutonic literature." 
Ulfilas had also great political influence among the Goths which he exerted for Rome. 
Through his Bible and his preaching Christianity spread rapidly through most of 
the Teutonic tribes before they entered Rome. It is to this fact more than any other 
that we owe the preservation of so much of the Roman civilization as survived the 
invasions which broke up the Empire to found on its ruins the modern nations of 
Europe. (Waitz, Das Leben des Ulfilas. Art. "Ulfilas," Encyc. Brit,) 

5. The Gothic Bible of Ulfilas. Till the ninth century this sacred and national 
work accompanied the Goths in all their migrations. But from that period nothing 
was known of it beyond what was found stated in the ancient ecclesiastical accounts, 
until the end of the eleventh century when Arnold Mercator discovered in the Abbey 
of Werden the gospels of Ulfilas. Then the manuscript found its way to Prague, where 
it remained till 1618, when the Swedes took it as a spoil to Upsal, where it still remains 
in the University Library, under the name of Codex Argenteus (because written in 



14 BEGINNINGS OF MODERN NATIONS. 

silver letters on purple parchment). In 1818 further remnants of the work — a great 
portion of tlie letters of St. Paul — were discovered by A. Mai and Castiglioni, on 
palimpsests, (what ?) in a Lombardiaii monastery, which, added to a few minor frag- 
ments, bring the New Testament somewliat near completion. "But hardly anything — 
except a few passages from Ezra and Nehemiah — has survived of the Old Testament.'' 

6. Arianism. — The form of Christianity which Ulfilas adopted and taught was 
called Arianism, from its founder Arius. Arius had been first deacon, then presbyter 
in the church of Alexandria, Egypt. He studied and expounded the Bible. In a 
conference, A'axander, bishop of Alexandria, remarked tliat the Trinity contained one 
essence only. Arius retorted that such a conception was impossible. From this 
chance conversation matters grew worse and worse till Arius declared that the Son was 
not co-equal with the Father (Homoousious, same substance) but that he was only the 
highest of God's finite creatures (Homoiousious, like substance), and that the Holy 
Ghost was not Gud. This idea of Jesus as only the leader of men powerfully affected 
the Avarlike barbarians when presented to them by Ulfilas, who appears to have been 
an Arian. This little quarrel of two Alexandrian churchmen had a mighty effect upon 
the future course of the world's history. Was it responsible for the Papacy? For the 
division of the Church into Eastern and Western? (Gibbon, Ch. XXXVII, p. 540-548.) 
Was John Milton an Arian^ (Art. "Arius," Encyc. Brit. Gibbon, XXVII, XXVIII. 
Emerton's Introd. III.) 

Part II. Beginnings of Modern Nations. 



LECTURE VII. THE WEST GOTHS. 



1. Theodosius, 376-395, A. D. — Last to rule over the whole of the empire of the 
Csesars. At his death the empire was given to his sons — Arcadius in the East, 
Honorius in the West. Theodosius was a Spaniard by birth, received a military 
education under his father who was for years the ablest general of- the West. Made 
Emperor of the East by Gratim after the defeit and deith of Valens. Theodosius 
beat the West Gotlis by stirring them up to internal war. Next he led an army of 
Alans, Goths and Huns against the West. The usurper, Maximus, with an army of 
Gauls and Germans, was defeated by Theodosius with West Goths and Huns. Thus 
had the empire already become barbarian though still retaining the old forms and 
ideas. It is to the son of Theodosius the Great that we owe the Theodosian code. 

2. Stilicho. — A Yandal; general of Theodosius the Great. Sent to Persia on a 
diplomatic mission, which was performed M'ith honor to the state. Married the 
adopted daughter of Theodosius. Made protector of the two sons of Theodosius. One 
of these, Honorius, married (398) Stilicho's daughter, and (408) his sister. Stilicho was 
the last, if not the greatest, of the barbarian generals who had been the support of the 
Empire for a century and a-half. Soon after the death of Theodosius he defeated 
Alaric and the West Goths, driving them out of Peloponnesus. A little later Alaric 
entered Italy, bat was again met by Stilicho, who defeated the West Goths at PoUentia 
(402), Verona (403), and the East Goths under Iladagaisus at Fiesole (405). Then the 
foolish Honorius listened to charges of treason, and the bravest of Rome's barbarian 
generals was politically murdered in violation of a sacred oath. 

3. Alaric. — One of the ablest of the earlier invaders of Italy was Alaric, who 
became king of the West Goths 395 A. D., soon after the death of Theodosius. The 
Goths }iad been quiet for near a dozen years, but Alaric at once headed a general 
uprising. We have seen (Sec. 2) how lie Avas driven liack by Stilicho from both Greece 
and Italy. But the Gothic appetite for plunder had grown too keen for restraint since 
their taste of Roman wealth, and Stilicho was scarcely dead before Alaric was leading 
a new army into Iialy. This time he marched straight on Rome. 



16 BEGINNINGS OF MODERN NATIONS. 

4. Sack of Rome By Alaric, 410 A D. — Alaric complained that the Romans had 
not kept their eiigaffements, and, after crossing the Po and plundering several cities in 
northern Ilaly, he laid seige to Rome 409. Aml)as3adors asked his terms. They were 
too hard. "The closer hay is pressed the easier it is mown," said Alaric, and soon the 
starving people had to promise a large treasure and extensive lands in north Italy. 
Alaric withdrew. The simple Honorius, who had fled to Ravenna, refused assent. 
Siege renewed. Alaric's moderation. More bad faith. City taken by storm (410) and 
given over to six days of plunder. Alaric appoints an Emperor in place of Honorius. 

5. West Cjoths Established in Spain. — From ruined Rome Alaric moved south- 
wards, but was prevented from invading Africa by the destruction of his fleet. His 
death. Burial in the cliaiuiel of the Busento (?). Succeeded by his brother-in-law, 
Athaulf, who marries the Emperor's .lister, Placidia. Peace concluded. Southern 
Gaul and Spain given to the West Goths on condition of driving out the Alani, the 
Suevi, and tlie Vandals. Founding of West Gothic kingdom, 415 A. D. (Gibbon, 
XXIX-XXXII.) 

LECTURE VIII. SPAIN IN THE niDDLE AGE. 

1. First OF THE Modern Nations Established on Roman Territory. — With the 
establishment of tha West Goths in southern Gaul and northern Spain the ancient his- 
tory of the third great peninsula of southern Europe closes and a new period begins. 
The capital of the West Goths was at Toulouse (location?) with Toledo (where?) as the 
Spanish center. From the first the dependence of the West Goths upon the Empire was 
little more than nominal; by the sixth century Spain was fairly consolidated and inde- 
pendent. In 711 A. D. the Mohammedans (Lect. XVIII, 5) overran the peninsula, 
crossed the Pyrenees, and for the last time threatened to fasten Eastern Civilization and 
ideas upon the individualistic, aggressive West. {Ibid. 1. Irving's Conquest of Spain.) 
The struggle with the Moors in Spain went forward actively for five hundred years, 
and they were not finally driven out (Granada) till the year in which Columbus dis- 
covered America. (Ivving's OonqueH of Granada. The Alkambra.) Portugal about 
1000 A. D won independence tlirough good service against the Moors. From that 
time the rest of Spain came gradually to recognize the two kingdoms of Castile and 
Aragon. The union of these was prepared by the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella 
(1469) (Prescott's Ferdinand and Isabella), and Spain soon hecame the foremost nation 
of the world. Her decline may be dated from the defeat of the Armada, 1588. (Creasy, X. 
Irving's «S^«///.s7/, Voyages.) The world is indebted to Spain for much of the learning 
of the Middle Age, especially in medicine, possibly even for the university spirit (Sala- 
manca?) and for the discovery of America. On the other hand Spain gave the world 
the Inquisition (Lea's History of the Inquisition), and her downfall may be credited 
to her systematic efforts to crush every spark of individual liberty. (Art. "Spain," 
Part II, Encyc. Brit. XXII, 304-346. Good historical map opp. p. 304.)* 

2. The Vandals in Europe, 100-429. — From tlie shores of the Baltic (time of 
Tacitus) the Vandals moved southward into Bohemia, and finally, after many defeats, 
settled as Roman subjects in Pannonia (region between the Drave and the Danube). 
Of Teutonic stock, closely related to the Goths. In 406, time of the weak Honorius, 
the Vandals invaded Gaul. (One of the charges against Stilicho, Honorius' adviser, 
was that being liimself a Vandal, he had winked at this invasion. Lect. VII. sec. 2). 
In Gaul they suffered defeat and severe loss by the Franks, and in 409 made their way 
across the Pyrenees. Here, for twenty years, they waged continual war with Romans 
or Goths indifferently, and in 429 crossed to Africa, leaving no more than their name 
to mark one of the most delightful districts of Spain, (V)Andalusia. 

3. The Vandals in Africa, One Century. 429-534 A. D. — Invited to Africa by 
Boniface, the Governor, Geiseric liad no sooner acted upon the invitation than he was 



*lri 15;8 Spiiiii rr|>rtBBiUed Ihe Liatui sjarii — suppression of iiuiiviihial liberty; Englamt, the Teiitnnio spirit — 
liberty of ti<ou^'ht and action. Note iu the attitude of 8paia and the United States now (1808) these two priuoiplea 
once more in conflict. 



18 BKGIN^MNOS OF MODERN NATIONS. 

besouglit to depart, liii^tead of doiiig so Geiseric besieged Hippo, which fell after a 
year of stiibhoni resistance. Carthage was left to Boniface, but ten years after (439) 
Geiseric, without declaring war, took Carthage, and Africa became a Vandal state. 

4. "Vandalism.". — Tiie Vandals appear to have been a restless, marauding sort of 
people (nation of bandits?). In 405, in response to the invitation of Eudoxia, widow 
of Valentinian, Geiseric sailed up the Tiber (first Teutonic people to foster a navy ? 
But see Sec. VI., 2.) took Rome, "and for fourteen days, in a calm and business like 
manner, emptied it of all its movable wealth" (including tlie vessels brought by Titus 
from the Temple at Jerusalem?) The common report of their wanton destruction of 
temples and art treasures is false. Our word, "Vandalism," probably arose from the 
severity of the persecution of Roman Catholics waged by the Arian (meaning?) Van- 
dals. This deadly persecution formed the chief business cf the remaining eighty 
years of Vandal history. In 533, Justinian, (Lect. XI., 2), the Eastern emperor, sent 
his great general, Belisarins (Ibid), to end the cruelties of the Vandals. Their king, 
Gelimer, was captured, and with great numbers of his subjects taken to Constanti- 
nople. The Vandals disappear from history. "Justinian sowed that Mahommed 
might reap." (Art. "Vandals," Eiicyc. Brit.) 

5. Burgundy. 443-534. — About the middle of the third century the Burgundians 
passed from the Vistula and Oder to the Rhine and Main. District about Worms. 
The Roman general, Actius, moved them (,443) to the Rhone south of Lake Geneva. 
Almost without a history during its brief century of independent existence. Burgundy 
disappeared from the maps, having become (534) part of the Frankish Empire. 
^Eme^ton's Iiiirod. ch. IV.) 

LECTURE IX. ATTILA AND THE HUNS. 

1. Attila, King of the Huns. — (Lect. V., 3.) Born probably about 40(5 A. D. 
Became King of the Huns 434 A. D. Killed his brother Bleda in order to make himself 
supreme. He ruled over a motley host of many tribes. His dominions are said to 
have extended at one time from the Rhine to China. Soon after liecoming king he 
invaded the Eastern Empire, but was defeated in three battles. He laid waste the 
whole country around Constantinople (445) and Tlieodosius had to make terms. Plot 
to assassinate Attila. Plot discovered. Christian Emperor upbraided by the heathen 
for want of honor. About to renew war. Attila finally moved west instead. 

2. Invasion of the Huns. — It seems a little remarkable that so wild a man ruling 
so barbarous a people should have dreamed, as liad Alexander, Ctesar, and others before 
him, Karl the Great, and Napoleon after him, of a world empire. Yet he did. Under 
his leadership the Huns had soon pushed as far as Pesth on the Danube. Declining 
Rome bought peace with a heavy tribute. Honoria, a Roman princess, offered to 
marry Attila. Meanwhile he prepared to push still to the West. 

3. Battle of Chalons. "Catalauian Fiklds." 451 A. D. — (Time of the English 
invasions of Britain.) Tlie precise location of the battle field is not known, but it was 
not far from Chalons in northeastern Gaul. (,See Map, Emerton's Introd.) The Roman 
forces in Gaul were commanded by Ai'tius. They had the powerful West Goths under 
Theodoric for allies. Attila crossed the Rhine near its mouth, passed Paris then an 
insignificant village on a little island in the Seine, and moved on to Orleans on the 
Loire. Here he was turned back. Ai'tius and Theodoric followed. Near Chalons 
Attila turned and fought. From three o'clock in the afternoon till dark the battle 
raged. Great numbers fell on both sides. Neither seemed to have won a victory, but 
in the morning it was discovered that .Vttila had continued his flight. Has tlie battle 
of Chalons been greatly exaggerated both as to its fierceness and its remote effects? 
(Creasy, ch. VI.) 

4. Venice Founded — Turning southward Attila entered Italy 452, overran Lom- 
bardy, and took A quileia (where?). It is to this event that Venice owes its origin. 



20 BEGINNINGS OF MODERN NATIONS. 

Fleeing from the fierceness of the Huns many of the people found refuge in the 
islancls of the Tiorthern Adriatic, laying there tlie foundations of one of the most 
important cities of the Middle Age. 

5. What Became of the Huns. — Attila conquered all Italy north of the Apennines. 
Rome seemed sure to fall into his hands when there came one day to Attila's camp the 
venerable Roman bishop (Pope?) Leo at the head of an embassy to beg for mercy. 
What effect tliis si range embassy had upon Attila is not known, but one of the most 
inexplicable things in history now happened. With the certain and easy conquest of 
all Jtaly with its wealth and power in full view, Attila turned from Italy, leaving 
"nothing but the terror of his name." He was long remembered as the "Scourge of 
God," but later German legends make a great hero of him .Within a year after leaving 
Italy Attila "died like a dog, .... in drunken sleep." With the fall of Attila the Huns 
are scattered, to be known no more in history as a nation. (Emerton's Introd., Ch. IV.) 

LECTURE X. THE EAST GOTHS. ITALY. 

1. East Goths, 376-493, A.D. When the West Goths were admitted by Valens 
the like application of the East Goths was refused. (Lect. V, 4.) Hence they made 
frequent incursions into Roman territory. Attempting to cross the Danube in 386 
A.D., they were attacked by the Romans and many thousands are said to have 
perished either by the sword or the river. Henceforth they were ready to join any 
force hostile to Rome Thus they fought at Chalons with Attila and his Huns against 
their brethren, the West Goths, who had sided with the Romans. (Lect. IX, 3.) 
Under Theodoric, the greatest of their kings, (tlieir was another Theodoric king of the 
West Goths a little earlier. Lect. IX, 8), 475 A.D., they again attacked the Eastern 
Empire. Received some of the richest provinces. Planned with Zeno, (488) an attack 
on Odovaker ("Rome." Lect. XXV. 5) in Italy. Odovaker defeated and slain (by 
Theodoric's own hand?) and the kingdom of the East Goths established in Italy. 

2. — Theodoric, the East Goth. — Born near present site of Vienna. Greatest in 
the line of the great Amali. At age of eight he was given as a hostage to Leo, 
emperor of the East. Educated by the Romans at Constantinople. Learned war, 
scorned science. Refused to learn to write his name. Made his mark — literally as 
well as figuratively. Returned to his people at age of .eighteen. Led a successful 
expedition against Belgrade (Singiriunum). Became king 475 A.D. Then came his 
fourteen years of war against Zeno, and the invasion of Italy (488.) 

3. East Goths in Italy, 493-553 A.D. With the overthrow of Odovaker (493) 
Theodoric, the East Goth, became king of Italy. Recall the establishment of a 
Teutonic nation — West Gotlis — in Spain 415 A. D. (Lect. Vlf, 5.) Now the very seat 
itself of the nation which had endured more than 1200 years is occupied by a barbarian 
nation. (In what sense barbarians?) Theodoric himself was a Roman by education 
(Sec. 2,) and he did all in his power to preserve Roman civilization. The East Goths 
made not Rome but Ravenna (where?) their capital. Peace. Prosperity. Corn 
exported instead of imported. Religious liberty. But Tlieodoric had Boetius, author 
of "The Consolations of Philo.sophy," put to death — suspected of plotting to restore 
Rome to the Eastern Empire. 

4. What Became of the East Goths. — After the death of Theodoric (526) the Roman 
Catholic and Arian faiths clashed. Besides Justinian had come to the throne of the 
Eastern Empire in 527. .lustinian dreamed of restoring the empire to its original 
boundaries. The Vandals were the first to fall before his general, Belisarius (Lect. 
VIII, 3). Belisarius then crossed to Italy, received tJie support of all the discontented, 
and strove for five years without success to drive the East Goths from Italy. But 
Theodoric's efforts to weld Romans ajid Goths had failed. Rome had been too long 
without an emperor, and the Bishop of Rome (Pope?) had become too powerful to 
submit tamely to a people regarded as barbarians and — what was far worse — heretics. 



22 BEOINNINGS OF MODERN NATIONS. 

Still took hard fighting when Belisarius returned after several years to drive out 
the Goths. It was not finally done till Narses hired other Germans with whose aid he 
defeated the Goths in 553. TJie EastGoth.s soon disappeared from history. Italy was 
nominally united with the empire, but was practically independent. Growth of the 
power of the Pope. 

5. The Lombakus in Italy, 568, A. D. — Narses was given the title of Exarch, and 
from Ravenna he juled Italy for the empire. Justinian's successors angered Narses, 
who, in revenge, invited the Lombards into Italy. Accordingly, under Alboin, their 
king, the Loml>ards (Langobardi, long beards i, took Pavia after a three years' siege, 
made it their capital, established themselves in the Po A'alley (Lombardy to this day) 
and rapidly overran the rest of Italy, which they governed by Lombard dukes. The 
Lombards were at first ruder than the Goths, I'Ut they gradually improved, gave up 
Arianism for the orthodox faith and systematized their laws for the use of the courts. 
By tlie middle of the eighth century, when the Popes firi^t appealed to the Franks, the 
Lombards had become a powerful nation. (Emerton's Tntrod. ch. V., VI. Paulus 
Diaconus, Hhtory of the Lombards. Gibbon, XXXIX., XLII., XLIII.) 

6. Italy had thus early become the football of the nations. Owing to the 
acquisition of temporal power to the Popes, it remained disunited almost to our 
own day (1861), Garibaldi, Cavour, Victor Emanuel. The papacy appears still to 
yearn for temporal power, and the future of Italy cannot yet be regarded as fully 
assured. 

LECTURE XI. THE EASTERN EMPIRE AND THE FRANKS. 

1. Division of the Roman Empire. — (Review.) — Empire first divided by Diocletian 
(284-305 A. D.) Eastern capital Nicomedia (where?); Western capital, Milan (Midio- 
laimm) (when did Rome fall?). Constantine (306-337) made Byzantium the real seat 
of the whole empire. After Constantine a period of anarchy. United for a short time 
under Theodosius (379-395) the Empire was finally divided, at his death, into the Em- 
pire of the East ajid the Empire of the West 395, A. D. Twenty years before this the 
Goths had begun their invasions in earnest, and we have seen what became of the Em- 
pire of the West. (Lect. X , 1.) 

2. Justinian. 527-565 A. D. — Justinian was born in the wilds of what is now 
Bulgaria, "of an obscure race of barbarians." His uncle, Justin, had traveled on foot 
to CoiKstantinople, had risen rapidly — Tribune, Count, General, Senator, Chief of the 
Guard.s, and finally, at the age of sixty-eight, Emperor. Justinian was brought to 
Constantinople, educated and made his uncle's heir. Justinian, shrewd and ambitious, 
got himself made Emperor before his uncle's death. Justinian was not truly great ; 
the morals of his age cannot be depicted in decent company; his wife, Theodora, had 
been one of the most depraved women that ever disgraced the pages of history. (See 
Gibbon, ch. XL., pp. 49-51.), though her life was reformed before she became queen. 
Reconquest of the West by Belisarius and Narses. (Lect. X., 4, 5.) Justinian "was 
neither beloved in his life nor regretted in his death." 

3. The "Blues and the Greens." — Names of the two political parties at Corn 
stantinople. These names had come from the Roman circus, where the charioteers 
were distinguished by blue and great liveries. The popular effect was the same as 
that of college or class colors. Whoever attended the games, even the Emperor him- 
self, was either a "blue" or a "green." This was all reproduced in the Hippodrome at 
Constantinople. Here, however, at least from the time of Justinian, the Emperors 
sided with the Blues. So violent was the hatred between these parties that murders 
were frequent. Just before Justinian's reign the "Greens" had concealed stones and 
daggers in baskets of fruit and massacred at one time 3,000 "Blues" at a festival. 
These factions became permanent and it is chiefly to their violence that the final over- 
throw of the Empire by the Turks (1453) is to be attributed. (Gibbon, ch. XL., 
pp. 5f;-64.j 



24 BEGINNINGS OF MODERN NATIONS. 

4. Roman I.aw. — Notwithstanding his many other services, it is probably for his 
success in preserving the Roman law tliat later ages have been most indebted to Jus- 
tinian. Tlie "Laws of Justinian," so called, are to this day a great storehouse for the 
student of jurisprudence. Justinian himself was both a lawyer and a legislator, yet he 
did not make all or any considerable number of tlie laws called by his name. He did 
not even make the compilation himself. What he did accomplish — through Triboiiian 
and others learned in the law — was the codification, and hence the preservation of all 
the laws of Rome in force in his time. Unfortunately, after this several older codes — 
Ulpian, Paulus, Gains — fell into disuse and liave been lost. 

5. Code of Justinian. — This was a collection in twelve books of all the laws of 
Rome then in force, made by Tribonian, who did not scruple to alter or adapt, as the 
need of liis own age required. A second edition soon appeared containing a large num- 
ber of laws and edicts made by Justinian himself. 

6. The Pandects, ok Digest. — Celebrated collection of "opinions, explanations and 
decisions" which served in Justinian's time as precedents. Made also by Tribonian, who, 
with fifteen assistants, was engaged three years in making a great collection of extracts, 
in fifty books from thirty-nine writers. Of these, one-third of the entii-e work is from 
Ulpian alone, while Paulus and Papinian come next in importance. "By far the most 
precious monument of the legal genius of the Romans." 

7. The Institutes of Justinian. — A treatise on the general principles of the Roman 
law. This was a text-book prepared also by Tribonian, with the assistance of the Pro- 
fessor of Law in the University of Constantinople and the Professor of Law in the great 
law school at Beyrout. 

Note. — There was a later unauthorized collection of contributions called the Codex 
Novellae. (Gibbon, Ch. XL., XLI., XLIV. For the Germanic ideas of Law, see Emer- 
ton's Introd Ch. VIII.) 

LECTURE Xll. EARLY HISTORY OF FRANCE. 

1. Gaul. — "The name given by the Romans to the country lying between the 
' Rhine and the Pyrenees." As early as B. C. 600 Greeks had settled Massilia. (Where?) 

They liad first called the whole of Southwesterr\ Europe "Celtice," later "Gallia." Gaul 
is formally introduced to the world in Caesar's "Gallic Wars," though fifty years earlier 
a portion of Gaul lying on the Rhone had been made a Roman province. The Gauls 
imposed their manners and customs upon a subject race (Iberians?) just as they in turn 
were themselves thoroughly Romanized. Caesar's conquest (B. C 58-50) the begin- 
ning of this process. After Caesar little attention paid to the country till the Empire 
was established. Gaul was then divided into four provinces, which, in the fourth cen- 
tury, were further divided into seventeen. 

2. Invasions of the Franks. — (See map — Encyc. Brit. IX., 723 — and notice that 
the Salian (sala, an inheritance?) Franks lie west of the Rhine near its mouth, and the 
Ripuarian (bankmen, or bank defenders,) Franks also west of the Rhine farther inland.) 
In 241 A. ]). the name "Franks" first appears in "a rough barrack song" — 

'•Mille Sarmatas, mille Francos, semel et semel occiilimiis; 
Mille, mille, mille, mille, mille, Persas quaerimus!" 

it is known that Franks lived also on the German side of the Rhine. They are soon 
at war with Rome; defeated by Julian (358 A. D.); many take service in the Roman 
armies, and by the end of the fourth century tliey had made Northern Gaul practically 
independent. They as often fought for the Romans as against them, however, (e. g., 
the battle of Chalons), till under Chlodwig (Clovis— 481-511) an independent Frankisli 
kingdom was established. Chlodwig founded the Merwing (Merovingian) house — the 
beginning of France proper. (Guizot's France, I., 108.) 



2fi THE NATIONS ASSUMK TIIEIK PKESKNT TEKKlTuRIAI, LIMITS. 

3. Chlodwig. It must be remembered that the Franks were Germanic, and Chlod- 
wig was a German in the same sense that the conquerors of Britain were Germans. 
Chlodwig was only fifteen years old when, by the death of his father, he became king 
of the salian Franks. 

4. The Vase of Soisson. Soon after Chlodwig ascended the throne of the Franks 
he defeated the West Goths, whose kingdom extended far up into France, (See Map, 
pp. 72, 73,) and took Soisson. In a marauding expedition tliey had taken from the 
church of Rheims "a vase of marvelous size and beauty." The bishop, who knew 
Chlodwig slightly, sent to ask the return at least of tlii^ vase. The messenger was 
invited to Soisson, where the division of spoil would take place, and was promised 
that when the lots had given Chlodwig the vase it should be returned. The booty was 
piled in the midst, and Chlodwig asked, in addition to his lot, the vase, which was 
cheerfully granted by his warriors. Then a silly, jealous soldier struck the vase with 
his axe, crying, "Thou shalt have tiaught of all this save what ihe lots shall truly 
give thee." Chlodwig gave the vase to the messenger and "bore the insult with sweet 
patience, .... hiding his wound in the recesses of his heart." A whole year after, 
having drawn up his warriors for review, he passed down the line till he came last to the 
fellow who had struck the vase. Chlodwig reproved him sharply for his poor arms, and 
snatching his battle-axe threw it on the ground. As the soldier stooped to pick it up 
the king buried his own axe in the fellow's skull, saying, "Thus didst thou to the vase 
of Soisson." "By this act he made himself greatly feared." (Guizot's France, J, 109, 
110.) 

5. Chlodwig's Conversion. Chlodwig had married Clotilde, nie<;e of the Bur- 
gundian king. She was a Christian, and Chlodwig came gradually toward her religion 
In 496 A. D. Chlodwig was on the point of defeat in a great battle with the Allemans; 
then he prayed to "the Lord of heaven, whom the queen preached." (See this prayer. 
Guizot's France, I, 115.) ^Immediately the tide of battle turned. Chlodwig declared 
himself converted and was baptized with his followers. This act led eventually to the 
establishment of the Holy Roman Empire. (Lect. XV., 6.) 

6. Death of Chlodwig, 511 A. D. The reign of Chlodwig had consolidated and 
greatly enlarged the territories of the Franks. Chlodwig had overthrown, "often by 
the foulest means," all the little independencies around him. Still because he pro- 
tected the bishops they praised him extravagantly. He was even regarded as a sort of 
David, and Gregory of Tours said, "Thus every day God put down the enemies of 
Chlodwig and increased his kingdom, because he walked with a heart that was right 
before God and did that which was pleasing in His eyes !" At the death of Chlodwig his 
kingdom was divided among his four sons, and for more than a century France was to 
grope in the dark under the "do-nothing kings." (Emerton's Introd.y r-h. VII. Gregory 
of Tours. Historia Francorum.) 

Part III. The Nations Assume Their Present 

Territorial Limits. 



LECTURE Xlll. FRANCE UNDER THE "DO NOTHING KINGS." 

1. France and the Papacy. — During the long period of troubles in Rome which 
followed Constantine's desertion, the church at Rome grew apace. The bishop of 
Rome was till that time, in no way superior to the bishops of other great cities like 
Antiocli, Alexandria, Constantinople, if not indeed distinctly inferior to some of them. 
Constantine had brought an obscure, very imperfectly organized sect into sudden 
prominence and power. Defects in organization had to be suddenly supplied and the 
church molded itself consciously on the forms of the Empire. Rome had been head 



28 TUE NATIONS ASSUME THEIR PRESENT TERRITORIAL LIMITS. 

of the Empire; the bishops of Rome at once insisted that it should be the head of the 
church. So vigorously was the assumption attacked that the bishops had to fortify 
their claim with the assertion that Peter had been the first bishop of Rome and his 
successors should be accorded first place in the church. In their frantic race for power 
the bishops of Rome turned from the Arians of Italy to the orthodox Franks, who 
from the time of Chlodwig were firm allies of the Papacy. This alliance determines 
the course of political affairs in the Middle Age. (Emerton's Iittrod., ch. IX. Gibbon 
ch. XV., XVI. Among the most famous chapters in Gibbon.) 

2. Neustria. — Half a century after the death of Chlodwig his kingdom was 
divided into Neustria and Austrasia. Neustria was the western side of the Frankish 
dominion. Romanized Kelts greatly outnumbered Franks. 

3. Austrasia — The eastern side of the Frankish dominions. Franks greatly out- 
numbered Kelts; thoroughly German. (See map pp. 96, 97; also Emerton's Introd., 
pp. 114, 115. Notice that the battle of Soisson extended the Frankish territory no 
farther south than the Loire.) 

4. Fkedegonda, Queen of Neustria. — Chilperic's favorite concubine. She was 
of peasant birth; a povrerful, coarse, and incredibly cruel woman; "beautiful, dexter- 
ous ambitious, and bold." When in 5(56 Chilperic married Galswintha, a West Gothic 
princess, he put away his concubines, (ialswintha brought vast treasures, but never 
won the king's love which Fredegonda had managed to hold. Galswintha became 
jealous and offered the king all her treasure if he would send her home free. Upon 
this Chilperic murdered (had her strangled in bed by a slave) the princess whom he 
had sought to be his wife, and "when he had mourned for her death, he espoused 
Fredegonda after an interval of a few days'' ! ! Fredegonda liad caused Chilperic to 
banish and then murder one queen before this. The long story of her unbridled 
license and murders cannot be rehearsed here. It culminates in an intrigue with a 
household ofiicer. She had Chilperic slain to prevent his discovery of it. She had 
Gregory, bishop of Tours, tried for treason, but the old historian escaped conviction. 
"She died quietly at Paris, in 597 or 598, powerful and dreaded." (See Guizot's 
France, I, 134-137.) 

5. Brunhilda, Queen of Austrasia. — Of noble birth, sister to Galswintha, and 
wife to Sigebert, king of Austrasia. The murder of Galswintha by Fredegonda made 
Brunhilda the mortal and life-long enemy of the barbarous Neustrasian Queen. War 
at once broke out. Sigebert was victorious, but was just then assassinated by Frede- 
gonda's einmissaries. Brunliilda fell into the hands of Chilperic. Saved by asylum 
in Paris Cathedral. (Explain this ) Sent to Rouen. Chilperic's son was at Rouen on 
a mission, was smitten with Brunhilda's beauty and married her. Brunhilda thus 
became heir to Fredegonda's throne! But the Austrasians would not give up their 
queen. Fredegonda's fury pursued her stepson so relentlessly that he had himself 
killed. At last (614) Brunhilda, at the age of eighty, fell into the hands of Frede- 
gonda's son and successor, Clothar II, who had her "tied by the liair, one foot, and one 
ami to the tail of an unbroken horse, that carried her away, and dashed her to pieces 
as he galloped and kicked, beneath the eyes of the ferocious spectators" (Clothar's 

army.) 

j^^QTE. — These stories must not be taken too seriously, though they are gravely 
related by Gregory of Tours, the historian of this period 

6. Major Domus. — "Chief among the Frankish nobles were those who held an 
office near the person of the kings" — something like I hat of a prime minister; very 
much the sort of person that Prince Bismarck was for so long in the State of Prussia . 
This major domus, master or mayor of the palace became the most powerful prince at 
a Frankish court. Strong major domus, weak king. Office of major domus becomes 
hereditary; the kings become puppets. (Cf. Odovaker and the last Roman Emperors in 
the West. "Rome," Lect. XXV, 5.) Very mucli in the .same way the Merwiug Kings 



30 THE NATIONS ASSrME TlIEtR PRESENT TERRITORIAL LIMITS. 

of France — "Les roia fain6ants" — were displaced by the energetic mayors of the palace, 
who presently had themselves declared king, thus founding the mighty Karling 
dynasty. 

LECTURE XIV. ALLIANCE BETWEEN THE POPES AND THE FRANKS. 

1. Karl Martel. (Circa 689-741.) — Sou of Pippiu'of Heristil, duke of Austrasia 
and major domus of the kings of France. He was disinherited by his father, but was 
made duke, nevertheless, by the popular voice. Karl Martel was a ruler by nature, 
and a conqueror. He laid the foundations of the vast empire of his grandson, Karl the 
Great. He subdued Neustria and Aquitaine, drove back the Saxons, and — what meant 
far more than all these to Europe — he met and defeated the Mohammedans in their 
career of world conquest between Tours and Poitiers in 732 A. D (Creasy, Cli. VII.) 
From the heavy blows lie here dealt the Saracens comes his surname —Martel, Hammer. 
Neglecting the puppet king who had been brought from a monastery and compelled to 
reign (?) Karl at his death divided his hard won territories between liis two sons. 
Carloman died. Pippin became sole ruler and left the kingdom to his sou, the greatest 
of the Karlings. 

2. From Major Domus to King. When Pippin le Bref succeeded Karl Martel it 
was indeed as real ruler, but not with the title of king. It was still thought wise to 
retain a phantom king. But Pippin le Bref was as active and able as liis father had 
been, and he at last determined to assume the dignity as well as the responsibility of 
his ofBce. Pippin accordingly addressed to Pope Stephen III (whose pretensions 
Pippin had supported) this question: "Should he have the title of king who has 
inherited it without power, or should he who has long been the real king?" The Pope 
in gratitude could send but one answer. The puppet king, Chilperic, was deposed and 
sent to a monastery while Pippin wao anointed and crowned king of the Franks 752. 
Karling dynasty founded. (See map, pp: 96, 97.) 

3. The Papacy. — We have seen how the Bishop of Home profited by the removal 
of the Emperor to Constantinople. (Lect. XIII, 1.) From that time it might almost 
be said that there were two worlds, each with its church and each with its empire. No 
sooner did the empire wane in Rome than the church sprang ambitiously into its 
place. No sooner did the empire flourish in Constantinople than the church so felt its 
dignity that it refused to yield precedence to the Roman bishop. If, therefore, the 
empire survived in Constantinople (1) it must actnally rule the Roman bishop, or (2) 
he would rule the Eastern church, or (3) there must be two churches. The Eastern 
church could never rule the Roman bishop until the imperial power should be felt at 
Rome, nor could the Eastern church submit to the Roman bishop while the empire 
flourished at Constantinople. What this curious situation actually evolved was two 
churches and two empires. The nominal separation in the church came first. The 
question of the worship of images was raised. The West declared for images; the 
East declared against them. After a long, fierce struggle, the East was excommuni- 
cated, and a final separation took place. The images still have a place in the worship 
of the Roman Catholic Church. 

4. The Bishop of Rome Independent op the Empire. — This conflict about images 
(Iconoclasm) had another important result in the complete independence of the Roman 
bishop. Naturally the emperor at Constantinople sided with the East against images. 
At last tlie Roman bishop went so far as to excommunicate the Emperor liimself. TJiis 
was equivalent to a declaraton of war. Both parties prepared. (It was just about this 
time tbat far oflf in Asia Mohammed was teaching another chnrcli, called heathen, to 
extend its dominion by the sword.) A fleet sent to take the Pope was wrecked. "The 
rebellion of the Pope had succeeded, and the Eastern Emperor never again received his 
allegiance." (Ch. XII.) 

5. The Popes Turn to the Franks. — But the Pope had escaped one master only 
to find himself exposed to another more dangerous, because nearer — the Lombards. 



32 THE NATIONS ASSUME THEIR PRESENT TERRITORIAL LIMITS. 

(Lect. X., 5.) The King of the Lombards had caused the Pope much trouble and was 
now again threatening Rome In his distress the successor of St. Peter appealed to 
Pippin. (Letter from St Peter himself.) The f^onibarrds were driven back and the 
conquered cities given to the Pope. Beginning of the territorial (temporal) power of 
the Papacy. 

LECTURE XV. KARL THE GREAT. 

1. Karl Becomes King of the Franks, 771 A. D. In 768 Pippin died. His 
dominions — according to the fatal rule of the Franks— weres divided between his sons, 
Carloman and Karl. Carloman soon died and Karl the Great became sole monarch of 
the Franks in 771. 

2. An Important Divorce Case.. Karl married a daughter of the Lombard king, 
but within a year divorced her and sent her back. Upon this divorce perhaps turns the 
course of events for the Middle Age. Had the alliance between the Popes and the 
Franks (Lect. XIV, 5,) been broken, as it must have been had this marriage united the 
Franks and the Lombards, the Popes could scarcely have held out against this com- 
bined force. There could then have been no Holy Roman Empire, (Sec. 6,) and future 
events must have taken a wholly different course. 

3. Conquest of the Lombards, 773 A. D. As it was the Franks and Lombards 
were made mortal enemies. The Popes called upon Karl for protection. He marched 
into Italy, (773, j beat the Lombards, spent Easter with the Pope, and confirmed the 
donations of Pippin. (Lect. XIV, 5.) A few years later Karl completed his conquest 
and placed the iron crown on his own head. 

4. Conquest of the Saxons. For more than thirty years the Saxons held out 
against Karl. They would submit when Karl led an army among them, but refused 
obedience as soon as he was gone. Pagans. Karl bent upon their conversion. At 
last Karl, driven to despair by the continual uprisings of tlie Saxons, had 4,500 Saxon 
prisoners massacred in cold blood. Saxons finally submit. Baptized. They were held 
in the water, or were given their choice between baptism and the sword. (See cut in 
Guizot's France, opp. p. 143.) Even this did not subdue the fierce spirit of our own 
savage ancestors, and Karl had to resort to deportation. Thousands of Saxon families 
were scattered throughout his dominions. 

5. Karl's Attitude Towards Learning. — Karl was more than conqueror. He 
engaged the most learned men of his time to come to his court and teach. His very 
court was a sort of University — when it was not on an expedition, or engaged in the 
chase. Schools were founded throughout his kingdom. Alcuin (who?) was the head 
of the court University. Karl gave German names to the months, was interested in 
Astronomy, and compelled the priests to study. He recommended that there be made 
'•no difference between the sons of serfs and of freemen, so that they might come and 
sit on the same benches to study grammar, music, and arithmetic. 

6. Karl Becomes Emperoh. Holy Roman Empire. 800 A. D. — When Karl was 
in Italy, (on his second expedition against the Lombards?) 800 A. D., he went on 
Christmas Day to worship in the church of St. Peter. While he was kneeling at the 
altar the Pope, Leo III., came behind without Karl's knowledge and placed upon his 
head the crown of the Csesars. By this act the Roman Empire in the West was 
restored; tlie Holy Roman Empire (which was ""neither holy nor Roman nor an 
Empire") was created; the West could never be re united with the East; the course of 
affairs for the Middle Age was sketched, at least in bold outline. 

LECTURE XVL THE HOLY ROMAN EHPIRE TO THE TREATY OF VERDUN. 843 A. D. 

1. The Empires.— The logic of events led to two churches. (Lect. XIV., 3.) With 
the crowning of Karl by Leo III., in return for his own restoration, the Western 
church effected in theory the restoration of the Western Empire. Why did not the 



:U THE NATIONS ASSUME THEIR PRESENT TKKKITORIAL LIMITS. 

Eastern Empire treat this as a revolt, as it really was? Because the separation had 
gradually taken place long before in fact and needed only this completion in theory 
to make it perfect. The people of the West had long been practically without an 
Emperor. In Karl they had found a man worthy to fill that high oflB.ce. 

2. Three Theobies of the Origin of the Holy Roman Empire. — (1) "The 
imperial party declared that Karl had won the crown by his conquests and was indebted 
to no one for it but himself." (2) "The Papal party said that the Pope, by virtue of 
his authority as successor of St. Peter, had deposed the Emperor at Constantinople 
and conferred the crown on Karl." (3) "The people of Rome also advanced a theory 
to the effect that they had elected Karl, and that they had revived their ancient right 
of electing the Emperor." (Criticise these theories.) It was almost three centuries 
after the establishment of the Holy Roman Empire before any theories about it 
became necessary. 

3. The Holy Roman Empire. 800-1806 A. D. It would appear that a divorce 
led to the establishment of the Holy Roman Empire. (Lect XV., 2.) It was actually 
inaugurated by the crowning of Karl on Christmas Day, 800 A. D. More than a 
thousand years were to pass before Europe was to see another Karl By that time 
the Empire had become too feeble to be of use, and Napoleon, choosing to rest his 
Empire on other theories, deposed Francis II , and brought the affairs of the Holy 
Roman Empire to a close in 1806. 

4. What was the Holy Roman Empire? — An institution rather than a State 
such as we now understand the word "empire" to mean. At tlie time of its establish- 
ment it was really a State ruled by Karl the Great. It included, roughly, France, 
Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Italy, with indefinite pagan countries to the northeast 
waiting to be added by conquest. The prospect was indeed dazzling. Was the world 
empire nearly reached by Alexander, and realized by the Romans for a brief time, at 
last to be permanently established ? No; if that dream of the ages is ever to be 
realized it must be under a federal representative government which shall guarantee 
local freedom to its members. Like the great bow of Odysseus Karl's great empire 
could be bent only by the master's hand. Within a single generation after Karl's death 
(843) his vast empire had been divided into three parts. The Holy Roiu;in Empire 
embraced henceforth only Germany and Italy. In its disregard of natural boundaries 
it ruined both countries. Germany remained disunited till 1871, and Italy is not yet 
secured. (Lect. X., 6. Bryce's Holy Roman Empire.) 

5. The Treaty of Verdun. A.ugust, 843 A. D. — Karl was succeeded by his son 
Ludwig the Pious. Ludwig was too lazy and worthless (pious?) to rule. So he divided 
up his kingdom among his three sons, 817. Afterwards Ludwig had a fourth son by a 
later marriage, while one of the older sons died. Ludwig now tried to favor the 
youngest son, and the two older rebelled. (What was the "Field of Lies?") Ludwig's 
indecision brought misery to himself and ruin to the Empire. LTpon Ludwig's death 
in 8 10, the oldest son, Lothar, claimed the Empire. Ludwig and Charles fought and 
defeated him at Fontenay. Lothar retired to Italy. Next spring Charles and Ludwig 
met near Strassburg and made an alliance. Each took the oath in the other's language. 
Both pre.served. Oldest documents showing divergence of French and German. 
(Emerlon's Medmnal Europe, p. 27.) After another year of war the three brothers 
agreed to the famous Treaty of Verdun: Lothar, Italy and Aaclien as Emperor; 
Charles, France; Ludwig, Germany. Territorial origin of these countries. (See map, 
pp. ]46, 147.) 

LECTURE XVII. FRANCE IN THE MIDDLE AQE. 

1. Last of the Kaklings. — After the treaty of Verdun the Karliug line came first 
to an end in Italy. Lothar's sons fouglit over his dominions, and at their deaths left 
no offspring. Succeeded by French and German lines. In France Charles the Bald suc- 
ceeded to the imperial lionor, but his successors were weak, and in 884 the only Kar- 



3fi THE NATIONS ASSUME THEIR PRESENT TERRITORIAL LIMITS. 

ling left in France was a boy five years old. The crown was given to Karl the Fat of 
Germany, who had already the imperial crown. This was the last time the three 
crowns were united. With the death of Karl the Fat (887) the three countries became 
nearly what they have since remained, and it became customary for the imperial crown, 
with Italy, to go to the King of the Germans. 

2. Beginning or the French Monarchy. — At the death of Karl the Fat the French 
nobles elected Count Odo of Paris, who became King of France, 888. He had to fight 
the Northmen who continued their invasions, (settled under Rolf (911) Normandy,) 
while the powerful nobles cared more for their own independence than for the nation's 
prosperity. At Odo's death he named Charles the Simple to succeed him. Odo's son, 
Robert, did homage to Charles "and received the duchy of France." ("Isle of France." 
See map p. 487 ) Robert's son, Hugo, Duke of Paris, might have become King, but de- 
clined. Hugo's son, Hugo Capet, was, upon the extinction of the Karling line, in 986, 
elected King of France. First of the Capetian dynasty. 

3. The French King Both a Sovekeign and an Overlord. — As an overlord "he 
could deal directly only with the members of the feudal hierarchy." As a sovereign 
"he dealt directly with all the inhabitants of the kingdom." Hugh Capet was sovereign 
in the Isle of France and in Burgundy. He was overlord of the remainder of what is 
now France, and more. (Flanders, (where?) Poitou, Anjou, Poitiers, Gascony, and 
Aquitaine.) The problem for the French monarchy was, therefore, to bring the great 
countries under the immediate sway of the King — extend the sovereignty. The history 
of France is really an account of tliis process of centralizatiou. But how had theSe 
great counts become so nearly independent? What was the counter process to that of 
centralization? It was feudalism. 

4. What Was Feudalism? — In a rude transitional age feudalism served instead of 
firmly established, well-regulated governments. The sort of imperfect government . 
called Feudalism required two things, land and allegiance. The extensive conquests of 
the Teutons furnished the land; the personal character of their law and organization — 
comitatus, (what?) made the tie of allegiance familiar. It was, therefore, among 
Teutonic peoples on Roman territory, as in France, that feudalism reached its most 
perfect development. Land at the disposal of the King. Distributed in large areas to 
his great lords on condition of furnishing troops for war — (allegiance.) Each lord might 
distribute his own area in the same way and so on indefinitely (subinfeudation). If now 
a weak King arises, the great loi'ds disregard him and become practically independent. 
Precisely this had happened before Hugh Capet came to the throne, and it was a long 
(nearly three centuries) and difiicult process to reduce these powerful hereditary lords 
again to submission. (Ch. XI.) 

5. The King's Sovereign Territories Enlarged. — Henry I. (1031 — 1060) added 
Sens at the death of its feudal lord. Conflict with William, Duke of Normandy. That 
the Duke proved stronger than the King is the best commentary on the character of 
overlordship. Henry's successor, Philip I., added the Vexin (north) by its owners going 
into a monastery; most of Vermandois by the death of its Count, and tlie city of 
Bourges (where?) by purchase. Then follow Aquitaine by marriage, Ijouis VII., (after- 
wards lost but recovered by Philip II.); Normandy, Anjou and Maine by force of arms 
from John of England by Philip II.; Artois he obtained by his wife, Auvergne by war, 
Poitou by forfeiture from John, and Toulouse by marriage. Louis IX. acquired "Car- 
cassonne, Beziers, Nismes, and Macon in the south, and the counties of Perche, Blois, 
Chartres, Sancene in the north." Pliilip III. (1270 — 1285), by the marriage of his son 
added Navarre, Champagne, and Brie. Henceforth the Capetians were Kings in fact as 
well as in name. Centralization had overcome feudalism (Ch. VII. and XVIII. to p. 
510.- For the struggle between France and England see Gardiner on the Hundred 
Years' War.) 



38 CHURCH AND STATE. 



Part IY. Church and State. 



LECTURE XVIII. THE nOHAHnEDANS. 

1. The Eastern Question.- — The so-called Eastern Question dates back at least to 
Marathon. There are three peninsulas in Southern Europe. The first great conflict 
between East and West took place in the im st eastern peninsula — Marathon. The sec- 
ond, in the middle peninsula — Hannibal's Campaign in Italy. The third, in the west- 
ern peninsula — the Mohammedans — Tours. Since Mohammed's time the Eastern Ques- 
tion has had four phases. (1) Expansion of the East from Mohammed to the Crusades 
(632—1096). (2) Reaction of the West— the Crusades (1096—1270). (3) Moham- 
medans push into Europe from the East (1270 — 1683). (4) Decline of Mohammedanism 
since 1683— "The Sick Man of Europe." 

2. Mohammed's Early Life. — Of tribe of Koreish, keepers of Caaba, or temple of 
Mecca. Father, Abdallah, noted for beauty — when he married two hundred maidens 
died of disappointment and jealousy (?) Mohammed born four years after the death 
of Justinian, Emperor of the East. Early deprived of father, grandfather, and mother. 
Poor. Camel driver to Cadijah, a rich widow. At age of twenty-five married Cadijab. 
Lived sober and virtuous life. At age of forty assumed title of Prophet and proclaimed 
the religion of the Koran. Journeys into Syria brought him into contact with Jews, 
and gave him some knowledge of Hebrew Scriptures. 

3. The Hegika, — Mohammed's first disciple was his wife; the next,a young cousin- 
Number grew slowly. Relatives remonstrated. Hostility in Mecca grew. His tribe 
denounced his family and refused to have intercourse with them till they delivered the 
person of Mohammed to the justice of the gods. Mohammed's death was resolved. 
Heads of tribes agreed that a sword from each tribe should be buried in his heart to 
divide the guilt of his blood and to baffle vengeance. Mohammed warned. At dead of 
night he and a faithful friend, Abubeker, fled from Mecca Hid in a cave for three 
days, then went on to Medina. This flight, known as The Hegira, is the beginning of 
the calendar for the Mohammedans. 

4. The Koran. — Sacred book of the Mohammedans. "A paper copy in a volume 
of silk and gems was brought down to the lowest heaven by the angel Gabriel;" he re- 
vealed it bit by bit to Mohammed. Written down on "palm leaves and shoulder blades 
of mutton."' The pages were cast pell-mell into a chest which was put in the care of 
one of Mohammed's wives. Two years after the death of Mohammed the sacred volume 
was collected and published by Abubeker. "The faith which, under the name of Islam, 
he preached to his family and nation, is compounded of an eternal truth and a necessary 
fiction: That there is only one God, and that Mohammed is the apostle of God." (Gib- 

"Tjon, ch. L.) 

5. Spread of Mohammedanism. — After the Hegira, Mohammed preached at Medina. 
Was there received as a prophet. Made war on Mecca and captured the city. After 
Mohammed's death (632) his followers conquered Arabia; Persia (637 — 650); took 
Jerusalem (637); invaded Egypt; captured Alexandria and burned its great library. 
(Answer of Omar. Gibbon Ch. LI.) Conquered Africa. Descended on Spain, 710 A. D. 
"The Arabian empire extended from the confines of Tartary and India to tlie shores 
of the Atlantic Ocean." Invaded France. They were finally checked by Karl Martel, 
and defeated "in the center of France between Tours and Poitiers." (Lect. XIV., 1.) 

6. Arab Learning and Universities. — The Fatimites of Africa and the Ommiades 
of Spain were patrons of learning. Emulation among them diffused learning. The 
vizier of a Sultan founded the University at Bagdad. Private citizens collected books. 
The royal library of the Fatimites contained 100,000 volumes, and tliat of the Om- 
miades contained 600,000 volumes. There were seventy public libraries in the Anda- 



40 CHURCH AND STATE. 

lusian kingdom alone. Their libraries contained orators and poets, general and partial 
history, codes and commentaries of jurisprudence, theological works of all kinds, and 
four classes of science. (1) Pliilosophy. (2) Mathematics. (3) Astronomy. (4) Physics 
They made great progress in medicine — in anatomy, botany, and chemistry. The age of 
Arabian learning continued about five hundred years. They disdained the study of 
any foreign tongue, and were ignorant of the Greek and Roman classics. They estab- 
lished universities at Bagdad, Cairo, and Cordova. Tlie intellectual life of ancient 
Greece carried to Asia by Alexander the Great thus returned in refreshing streams 
upon the barren wastes of the "Dark Ages." Prepared the way for the Renaissance. 

7. The Cbusades. 1096-1270. — The most remarkable events of the Middle Age. 
Under the growing influence of the church, pilgrimages to the Holy Sepulchre had 
become very numerous. Strong desire of Christians to free Jerusalem from Moham- 
medan rule. Pope's influence gained by Peter the Hermit and for two hundred years 
Christian Europe poured itself in vast streams into Mohammedan Asia. 1. Led by 
Walter the Penniless, Godfrey of Buillion, and Robert, son of William the Conqueror. 
Jerusalem taken — massacre— 1099. Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem. II. 1147-1149. 
Perished in Asia Minor. III. 1189-1192. Richard I. Philip II. Acre (where?) 
captured. IV. -1202-1204. Led by Baldwin of Flanders for Pope Innocent. Directed 
against Egypt. Established Latin Empire at Constantinople, with Baldwin as Emperor. 
Children's Crusade (1212). Thousands of Children perished. Re-action. V., VI., and 
VII. came to nothing. Results: 1. Greatly increased the power and influence of the 
church. 2. Strengthened Princess, weakened lords. 3. Developed commerce — Italian 
Republics. 4. Intellectual growth. 5. Orders of Knighthood: Hospitalers, Templars 
Teutonic. (See map, p. 344-5; Cox's The Cnisades.) 

LECTURE XIX. THE EHPIRE (GERMANY) AND THE PAPACY (ITALY). 

1. Growth of Germany. — The Karling line became extinct in Germany in 911 
(death of Ludwig, the child). Already the Germans had fallen into four great divi- 
sions. (!)• Bavaria, (2) Swabia, (3) Franconia, (4) Saxony. These all united, how- 
ever, to elect a king. Conrad of Franconia was chosen. (Conrad I., 911-918.) Con- 
rad's problem was the same as that of Hugh Capet had been — to strengthen the 
monarchy at the expense of the great independent duchies. Conrad failed. Instead 
of cultivating patiently the growth of the royal domains as the Capetians did (Lect. 
XVIII. , 5,) he insisted upon the complete submission of the great dukes at once. 
This roused the jealously of the duchies before the monarch was able to use force, 
thus rendering future union diflicult if not impossible. 

2. Otto the Great. 936-973. — The next chance for the union of Germany came 
to Otto the Great. His father, Henry tlie Fowler, had a long and prosperous reign 
during which many of the evil effects of Conrad's'indiscretion were overcome. Henry 
had been judicious, advancing only such claims as he could enforce. Otto proved to 
be a powerful ruler, able to support far greater pretensions. After fourteen years of 
conflict he forced the dukes to submit, and it looked as if Germany was to become a 
nation. 

3. Decline of the Papacy. — Under Nicholas I. (858-867) the Papacy had reached 
its full maturity — the vicar of God on earth with kings and emperors for subjects. 
Nicholas showed himself superior to local councils and synods, made himself the 
supreme power in Italy, and forced the Emperor, Lothar II., (KarPs great-grandson) 
to submit to his decisions. But in this complete victory of the Papacy lay its defeat. 
It failed to recognize tliat it must depend for supremacy on the variety and univer- 
sality of its interests. It should have allied itself with the Empire and made Italy 
and local matters secondary. But in the arrogancy of its pretensions it refused to 
recognize the Emperor except as a subject. (Cf. the silly pretensions of Conrad I., 
sec. 1.) Tlie successor of Nifholas was friendly to the Empire, but the Roman church 
would hear of no such thing. The Papacy became local and rapidly sank to the 
lowest depths of moral degredation. 



44 CHANGE FROxM MEDIEVAL TO MODERN CONDITIONS. 

3. HiLDEBKAND, Pope Gregory VII. — Henry H. appointed bistops nevertheless, 
both in Germany and in Italy. . But in making a strong national church he forgot that 
these men might in a final issue put Church before Slate. Henry"s successors 
(Conrad II., 1024- 1039, and Henry III, 1039-1056) pushed the same policy with suc- 
cess. The German episcopacy stood by the Empire, and Henry III. made himseU 
practically independent of the Popes. Henry IV. was but an infant at his accession, 
and the Pope, Victor II. was made his guardian Victor was a <.erman and did not 
use this opportunity to overthrow the Empire Victor's death, with the Empire in 
the hands of a child, brought back the Roman factions and produced a Roman I'ope, 
Stephen X Soon died— poisoned. (?) Lateran Synod (looit) established college of 
bishops for election of Popes — constitution for an independent church. Fifteen years 
later Hildebrand caused himself to be hastily elected Pope as Gregory VII. (1073) 
without consulting the Emperor. 

4. Henry IV and Gregory VII. A rebellion of the Saxons allowed Gregory at 
once to begin open warfare against Henry IV. Gregory allied himself with Henry's 
rebellious subjects, and in 1075 called a synod in which Lay Investiture (what?) was 
first prohibited. From the " Dictatus Papae" "it is clear that the aim of Gregory's 
policy was nothing short of a complete subjugation of every earthly power to the 
final arbitrament of Rome." Henry paid no attention to these pretensions of the 
Pope. The Pope remonstrated ; Henry invested bishops. The Pope excommunicated 
Henry's oflBcers ; Henry retained them in his service. Then came messengers to say to 
Henry that he must dismiss these officers and cease to invest bishops or he would be 
excommunicated. Immediately Germany was in a fever of excitement. National 
Council at Worms declared independence of the Pope and called on the Italians to do 
likewise. Henry was deposed and excommunicated. At first no attention was paid to 
either, but slowly the Pope gathered power. Agreement readied that Henry should 
be practically a prisoner at Speier, and unless he could free himself from the excom- 
munication by the next February his people sliould be absolved from allegiance. 

5. Canossa. 1077. Henry now saw that he must escape the excommunication at 
any cost. Journeyed in winter across the Alps, Outwitted the Pope who was hasten- 
ing to Germany to turn his advantage to full account. "Gregory was fairly caught." 
He kept the king waiting three days, (Henry stood barefoot in the snow without the 
gate?), then restored him to favor. The Pope had gone too far, and for several years 
everything turned once more in favor of the Empire. Gregory exiled to Salerno 
where he died 1085. '"I have loved justice and hated iniquity, therefore I die in 
exile,' were the last words of the greatest man of his time, one of the greatest of 
all time." 

6. End of the Struggle. Soon after Henry's son rebelled and the Pope became 
supreme. Henry IV died defeated. Concordat of Worms (1122). Compromise (what?) 
Still the struggle dragged on. Germany falling into jealous, independent states. The 
Popes pursued their policy till the extinction of the Hohenstanffen House in 1254, 
when they became completely victorious and Germany was left without a ruler. 
The Great Interregnum. 

Part V. Change from Medieval to Modern Conditions. 



LECTURE XXI. THE NORTHMEN. THE CITIES. 

1. Who were the Northmen? "The bold sea-rovers and pirates of Scandinavia 
and Denmark." As early as 787 the coast of England liad been attacked by pirates 
from the continent. Alfred the Great finally beat these back and restricted them to 
the Danelaw. (Treaty of Chippenham, 878). After a century and a-quarter of strug- 
gle, however, England was Jorced to yield and these hardy seamen ruled the country 
from 1016 to 1042. 



42 rmiRi'H and state. 

4. Trial of Pope Fobmosus. Upon the death of Nicholas's successor, Formosus. 
"a pope rushed hastily into office, died in a fortiiigbt. Another set up by Roman 
factions lent himself to the unheard-o I scheme of putting the dead Formosus through 
the form of a trial. The corpse of the pope, already eight months in the grave, was 
dug up and dragged to St. Peter's before a synod of the Roman clergy. Dressed in 
full pontificals it was placed upon tlie papal throne and furnished with an advocate for 
its defense. The advocate of the new pope, Stephen, then called upon the dead to 
declare Avhy he had dared to ascend the throne of St. Peter while sLill holding the 
office of Bishop of Poiitus. The advocate of Formosus made what feeble defense he 
dared, but the assembly representing the voice of God on earth, declared Formosus 
guilty and deposed him from office. The papal garments were torn from the corpse, 
the three fingers with which he had given divine blessing were chopped off, and the 
body dragged out of the church by the heels, was thrown into the Tiber." 

5. Orro the Great Called to Italy. — Under such a papacy Italy's condition 
was pitiable indeed. Neither the local king nor the pope was able to keep the peace, 
and in 951 Otto marched to Pavia and was crowned king of Italy. Before he could 
reach Rome he had to return home and spend ten years in repelling invasions and 
securing his authority in Germany. In the summer of 961, however, Otto is again in 
Italy. Mutual protestations of friendship. Otto admitted by the Pope to Rome to 
be crowned Emperor. But Otto charged his sword bearer: "While I am praying in 
St. Peter's keep your sword close to my head. When once we reach Monte Mario 
again you shall have time to pray as much as you like." It was not likely such a 
friendship would last. Soon the Pope displeased Otto and a war began. 

6. Otto's Prime Mistake — The policy of the Empire should just now have been 
the reverse of the papal policy outlined above (Sec. 3). Otto should have remained in 
Germany till his own dominions were thoroughly welded. Then with a powerful and 
united Germany at his back an Emperor might have withstood the Papacy. Otto 
forsook his real support, Germany, for an imaginary one, the Empire, and German 
unity was put off nearly a thousand years. (Lect. XXV., 6). 

LECTURE XX. THE STRUGGLE FOR POLITICAL SUPREMACY. 

1. Preparations for the Struggle —''As we enter upon the history of the 
great conflict of the Middle Ages, the struggle between the religious and the secular 
powers for the mastery in European aft'airs, it becomes important above all things to 
get a clear idea of the conditions under which this conflict was begun." The imme- 
diate successors of Otto the Great (especially Otto III ) continued his policy — neglected 
Germany for the Empire. The Roman factions, at last worn out, asked Otto to name 
a Pope. First German to become pope (Bruno) as Gregory V. Empire and Papacy at 
peace. Within a few months Sylvester II. became pope and immediately pushed the 
vjlaim to papal supremacy. Christianization of Hungary and the northeast Otto HI. 
wished to make Rome his capital, and imagined wild things about an empire that was 
never to be — because it must depend not upon the imagination but upon the sword. 
Otto's successor, Henry II. (1002-1024) of Bavaria saw that Germany was really to be 
controlled through the great bishoprics. These, therefore, Henry determined to con- 
ciliate and control. 

2. "The Papal Platform.'" — It was during the reign of Henry II. that the three 
points on which the papacy made its great fight for political power came into view. 
(1) Celibacy of the parish clergy through all its orders. (2) Purity of elections to 
ecclesiastical positions— simony forbidden. (3) Papal investiture — "the bishop should 
receive the right to perform tlie duties of his office from no layman whomsoever, but 
from the Pope alone." I' was the third which was aimed directly at the Empire, and 
it was around this question of investiture that Church and State waged a devastating 
war for more than two hundred years. 



48 CHANGE FROM MEDIEVAL TO MODERN CONDITIONS. 

expelled. Petrarch disliked law, his father's profession, but loved the works of the 
classical writers. His father was angered and threw his books of poetry and rhetoric 
into the fire, but relented, on account of his son's entreaties, in time to save a Virgil 
and a half-burned Cicero. (How were books made in those days? What was their 
value?) Left in poverty at liis father's death. Took orders. Traveled and won fame 
as a poet. Honored by University of Paris — offered him tlie poet's laurel crown 
which, however, he accepted from King Robert of Naples. Declined papal secretary- 
ship and many other honors. A lover of learning and made it tlie fashion to love learn- 
ing. Petrarcli brought the men of his time into intelligent contact with antiquity. 
Was found dead in his library among his books. 

4. Boccaccio, Giovanni. 1313-1375. — Illegitimate son of a wealthy merchant- 
Wrote poetry at the age of seven. Hated commerce; tried law, but preferred to write 
First work of Boccaccio was a prose tale. His poetry severely criticised. The young 
queen Giovanna of Naples showed him favor, and it was to please her that he wrote 
the Decameron — a distinctly human work, strongly opposed to the theological mold 
in which previous learning had been cast. Offered a chair in Florence University to 
interpret Dante's Divina Commedia. Accepted. Died poor, leaving his books to his 
father confessor. 

5. Study and report these earlier lovers of learning: Gregory of Tours, historian 
of the Franks; Karl the Great, Alcuin, Paulus Diaeonus, (Paul the Deacon, the his- 
torian of the Lombards), Berengar of Tours, Anselm, Abelard (1079-1142), Ber- 
nard of Clairvaux, Thomas Aquinas, Duns Scotus. Also topics like Karling Renais- 
sance, Transubstantiation, Predestination, Asceticism, Cluny, The Cluniac Reforms, 
Scholasticism, Nominalism, Realism, Mysticism, The Mendicant Scholars, St. Francis 
of Assissi, St. Dominic, the "Wandering Scholars." 

6. The University of Paris. — One of the oldest of the Universities, dating back 
perhaps to the eleventh century. The rise of universities in the Middle Age points to 
the emancipation of scholarship and teaching fnom monastic control. One expression 
of the Revival of Learning. The universities were at first no more than associations 
of teachers and learners — usually a great leader of thought (as William of Champeaux 
at Paris) with his followers gathered to his lectures. Usually in important centres. 
Frequent collissions between "town" and "gown." Among the early universities Paris 
came to stand for Theology, Bologna for Law, Salerno for Medicine (The "three 
earned profe.ssions" to this day). (Find origin and meaning of degrees A.B., A.M., 
IMi.D.) 

LECTURE XXlll. THE QREAT PROTESTANT REFORriATION. 

1. Wycliffe. (1320 (?) — 1384.)^Perhaps the relation (or distinction) between the 
Revival of Learning and the Reformation may be best understood by noticing that 
Wycliffe, the forerunner of the Reformation, was b(nMi almost in the very year in 
which Dante, the forerunner of the Revival of Learning, died. The Renais.sance means 
the breaking away from the orthodox modes of ihougld; the Reformation, the break- 
ing away from the orthodox modes of life and action. Wycliffe was an Oxford man; 
one of the ablest preachers of his time. His first writing was political; denied tlie right 
of the church to meddle in temporal affairs; finally denied tlie right of tlie church to 
any temporal possessions whatever. (See seven points of his creed, Eiicyc. Brit., Art. 
"Wycliffe.") Wycliffe made first complete English version of tlie Bible, and sent "plain 
men" to pi-each the truth as found in it. Denied doctrine of transubstantiation; tried 
for heresy; supported by Oxford; cited to Rome by Urban VI.; refused to go. Died 
in Leicestershire. The Council of Constance (1415) ordered his remains to be dug up 
and burned. Order executed (1428). 

2. John Huss. — A Bohemian. Born 1369. Learned and then taught the doctrines 
of Wycliffe. Pope issueil a bull (1409) ordering the abjuration of all Wycliffite heresies 
and the surrender of all his books. Four hundred Wycliffe books burned in court- 



}fi CUANfiE FROM MEDIKVAI. TO MODERX CONDITIONS. 

2. Northmen in France — The Northmen are said to have appeared in France as 
early as the time of Karl the Great. Karl wept when he saw one of their swift ships 
in the Seine, "bei-ause," said he, "I foresee the misery they will bring my country." 
Charles the Simple settled Rollo and his followers on the Lower Seine (911) Nor- 
mandy. William the Conqueror. Four centuries of desolatioti for France ending with 
close of the Hundred Years' War, 1451. (Cli. IX.) 

:>. Northmen in Italy and Elsewhere. — Southern Italy was held partly by the 
Saracens and partly by the Eastern Emperor. In 1016 a band of Norman pilgrims was 
shipwrecked at Salerno (where?). Thej^ immediately began war on the Saracens. By 
1081 they were secure in Italy and ready under their brave leader, Robert Guiscard, to 
attack the Eastern Empire. Robert would probably have overthrown the Eastern Em- 
pire had not Gregory VI 1. recalled him to help against Henry IV. (Lect. XX., 4 ) 
Kingdom of the Two Sicilies founded. The Northmen had also pushed eastward 
through Russia as far as Novgorod. They had settled Iceland (874?), discovered Amer- 
ica (1000), and, as we have .seen, established themselves firmly in England, France, and 
Italy. (Ch. X.; also Wheaton's History of the Northmen: .\rts. "Normandy" and 
<'Normans," in Encyc. Brit.) 

4. Development of the Cities in the Twelfth Century — As governments became 
more stable the peasant class gained rapidly in importance. Began to form commu- 
nities, villages, cities, which could make better terms with the lord than could in- 
dividuals. Guilds. (Find what these were.) Did mediaeval cities have an independent 
origin, or did they spring from Roman corporations? Probably both. Cities soon be- 
came centers of wealth. (Why?) Kings and lords granted them liberties in return for 
money furnished. Free cities. 

5. The Hanseatic League, 1330 — Circa 1500. — At first a league of merchants to 
project trade when government was little more than ttie right to defend oneself against 
the Robber Barons. (Who were these?) Later a league of eighty-five or more cities 
of Germany and the Baltic for the control of commerce in their own interest. Con- 
quest of Denmark— Treaty of Stralsund. From 1361 the League was a political power 
able to dictate to some neighboring states. Federal government. Assemblies met once 
a year, usually at Lubeck. Their Recesse (laws) have been preserved. During the 
fifteenth century the Hansa became gradually weaker through — (1) jealousy, (2) 
stronger governments — protection no longer needed, (3) geographical discoveries, (4) 
loss of independence by the towns as feudal privileges disappeared. 

LECTURE XXII. THE RENAISSANCE AND THE UNIVERSITIES. 

1. What Was the Renaissance? — That revival of interest in the life and literature 
of ancient Greece and Rome which came to its full flower in the age of Dante, Petrarch 
and Boccaccio. It has no date, but is usually associated with the thirteenth and four- 
teenth centuries. It will be best understood by a glimpse of the men who led in the 
new learning. 

2. Dantb Alighieri. — Born 1265, i. e., just about the end of the great struggle be- 
tween the Empire and the Papacy, and the close of the Crusades. Forerunner of the 
Renaissance, but nt)t himself a Humanist. (One who cultivated the "humanities," 1 e , 
classical life and literature, as distinguished from the theological subjects which had 
been all the fashion.) Studied all the famous poets, also Philosophy, Theology, 
Astrology, Arithmetic, Geometry, and History. Skilful draughtsman. Became em- 
broiled with the political factions of Florence — the "Blacks' and the "Whites." Dante 
banished the heads of both factions, but was afterwards himself condemned to pay 
5,000 lire in three days or suffer confiscation of his property. He was soon after con- 
demned to be burned. Escaped, and in his wanderings probably went to England and 
visited Oxford University. Last days spent in poverty. Died at Ravenna, 1321. 

3. Petrarch. Francesco Petrarca. I£04-1374. — A leading Humanist, a lover 
of the New Learning. His father had been a notary in the Florentine Court but was 



50 CHANGE FROM MEDIEVAL TO MODERN CONDITIONS, 

yard of palace of Archbishop of Prague. Henceforth Huss publicly defended WycliflFe. 
Excommunicated. Huss tlien denounced sale of "Indulgences." Sent for to attend 
Council of Constance (1418). Went under the solemn promise of the Emperor Sigis- 
mund that his life should be protected. Basely betrayed. Burned July 6, 1415. "He 
was the chief intermediary in handing on from Wycliffe to Luther the torch which 
kindled the Reformation." 

3. Erasmus Desiderius. (1466 — 1536). Born out of wedlock at Rotterdam. Cared 
for by his father, but both father and mother died young. Erasmus was a humanist, 
not a reformer, but his great learning and writings were in both time and form so per- 
fectly suited to the needs of the Reformers that he is regarded as belonging to the Re- 
formation, The Pope said: "Erasmus laid the egg, Luther hatched it." He was destined 
for a monastic life but loathed it. Made his way to Paris, afterward to Oxford, Eng- 
land. Always miserably poor. A prodigious worker. Most noted for a Greek version 
of the New Testament, with copious notes which the church found most hateful. "The 
purpose of his life was to fight the battle of sound learning and plain common sense 
against the powers of ignorance and superstition." 

4. Martin Luther. (1483 — 1546). — Enough has been said to show that although 
Luther has come to be known as the Great Reformer; he was by no means the Re- 
formation. Luther succeeded mainly because the return to the simple truths of the 
Bible as taught by Wycliffe and Huss had gained rapidly in force, and the Pope found 
himself unable to burn all who had the courage to stand for truth against churchism. 
Luther denied transubstantiation; Wycliffe's decayed body had been dug from the 
ground and burned because Wycliffe had preached against transubstantiation. Luther 
revolted and nailed his "Theses" to the door of Wittenburg Church because the open, 
shameless sale of indulgences to get money to build St. Peter's at Rome had insulted 
him; Huss had been betrayed and burned because he had dared to raise his voice against 
the sale of indulgences. Luther was warned, then excommunicated; but Germany had 
come to his side. Tried at the great Diet at Worms, Luther, like Huss, refused to re- 
cant; but in Luther's case the treacherous effort to betray him in spite of the Em- 
peror's safe conduct (what?) failed. The Reformation had become a fact. Not Luther 
but Germany had revolted from "the Church." The effort of Spain to crush political 
liberty was defeated by England — Armada, 1588. (Crrasy, Ch. X) The effort of the 
church to crush religious liberty was doomed to utter defeat from the day that Luther's 
safety became assured, and was acknowledged by the Treaty of Westphalia, 1648. 

5. Calvin. 1509-1564. — A Frenchman by birth. Led the Reformation in France 
(where it failed practically), and also (with Zwingle) in Switzerland (where it suc- 
ceeded). Calvin differed with Luther on .some doctrinal points and a meeting was 
arranged to adjust differences. Failed: Luther refused the proffered hand of friend- 
ship. The English church founded by Henry VIII. became Calvinistic through 
religious exiles who learned Calvin's doctrines in the Netherlands and carried them 
back to England. 

LECTURE XXIV. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 1789. 

1. France Before the Revolution. — We left France at the end of the Hundred 
Years' War (i451) with her territory at last pretty well consolidated. With Louis 
XII. (1498) the House of Orleans came to the throne. This dynasty won back Calais, 
the last English possession in France. The Huguenot Wars (1562-1598), caused by 
cruel persecution. Civil w^ars continually through the reign of Henry III. House of 
Bourbon — Henry lY. King of Navarre, a Protestant. Life in danger till he became a 
Catholic. He issued Edict of Nantes (1598) giving Huguenots equal political rights 
with Catholics. His great minister was Sully. Then came Louis XIII., under whom 
the States General called for last time (1614) before the Revolution. Richelieu. Louis's 
sister, became wife of Charles I. of England and gave her name to Maryland. Mary 
de'Medici. Louis XIV. (164.3-1715). Five years old. France reduced to absolute 



52 CHANGE FROM MEDIEVAL TO MODERN CONDITIONS. 

dependence on the king. "L'etat, c'est moi." Mazarin. Colbert. Madame de Main- 
tenet;. Edict of Nantes revoked 1688. Huguenots flee to America. Louis XV. "The 
Well-beloved." "After us the Deluge.'' Louis XVL became king of a starving people. 
The Revolution could be put off no longer. 

2. Outbreak of the Revolution. — Louis XVI. had neither the courage to reform 
the State nor the strength to rule it as it was. Maurepas, Turgot, Necker, and Calonne 
successively called to the task of reform. Failed. Assembly of Notables summoned 
(1787). Soon dissolved witliout effecting anything. As a last resort States General 
summoned for first time in 175 years, May 5, 1789. Vote by orders or by individuals? 
Tiers etat at last revolted, assumed title of National (Constituent) Assembly, June 17, 
1789. Hall locked. Met in tennis court — President Bailly. "Oath of the Tennis 
Court" not to separate till they had made a constitution. Clergy and nobility join the 
commons Rumors of dissolving the Assembly, dismissal of Necker, and concentra- 
tion of troops around Paris, led to the Destruction of Bastile,' July 14, 1789. The 
Revolution had begun in earnest, 

3. Execution of Louis XVL, January 21, 1793 — The National Assembly con- 
tinued its work of constitution-making in the midst of tlie worst disorders Paris 
practically in the hands of a mob all the time. Hunger. March of the mob of women 
to Versailles. Insurrections in the districts. (What were the Assignats?) Constitution 
adopted on the anniversary of the destruction of the Bastile, 1790. Jacobin and other 
clubs organized. New constitution went into effect with the meeting of the Legisla- 
tive Assembly, October 1, 1791. The Girondists. The Mountain Prussia and Austria 
unite against the Revolutionists. Defeated. '! uilleries stormed. Massacre of the Swiss 
Guards. (Thorwaldsen's Lion, Lake Lucerne, Switzerland.) Jacobins in power. Jail 
delivery. Danton Minister of Justice. National Convention composed entirely of 
Republicans, September 21, 1792. Monarchy abolished. Louis XVI. tried before this 
assembly and condemned; sentenced to be beheaded. 

4. Reign of Terror — Reaction. Committee of Public Safety, (9 then 12), 
headed by Danton and Robespierre. Reign of Terror ended with the fall of Robe- 
spierre, July 27, 1794. Moderate Party in control. By tlie Constitution of 1795, Paris 
established the Government of the Directory, (1) Executive directory of five persons. 
(2) Legislative, Council of Elders (250), and a Concil of Five Hundred. 

LECTURE XXV. NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. 

1. The Italian Campaign — Napoleon was born August 15, 1769 in Corsica. 
Family probably noble but very poor. Was sent to military school of Brienne, Paris. 
Led his comrades in mock battles and read Plutarch's Livies. At the age of twenty- 
six the Directory put him in command of the troops in Paris. Turned his cannon on 
the mob and reduced the city to order. Directory sent three armies against Austria. 
Jourdaii and Moreau on the north, Napoleon in Italy. Defeated the Austrians in a 
series of battles. Note Lodi: Siege of Mantua, and Ar.ole. Took the Pope prisoner. 
Peace of Campo Formio, October 17, 1797. Austria lost the Belgian provinces, Ionian 
Islands, Cisalpine Republic. 

2. Napoleon, First Consul. 1799-1804 — Napoleon's Egyptian Campaign (1798- 
1799) followed his brilliant achievements in Italy. Battle of the Pyramids: "Soldiers, 
forty centuries look down upon you." Failure of his attempt upon Akko. (where?) 
French fleet destroyed by Nelson at Aboukir (where?) 1798. November 9, 1799, the 
Council of Five Hundred overthrew the Directory and made Bonaparte, who had just 
arrived from Egypt witliout orders. First Consul for ten years. New constitution: 
Senate of Eighty elected for life; tribunate of One Hundred to discuss measures with- 
out voting; legislative chamber of Three Hundred with power only to accept or reject 
measures without debate. Executive in hands of First Consul with a council of State. 
Legislature had no initiative. 



54 CUANGK FKO.M MEDIEVAL TO MUDEKN CUNDXTIOJS'S. 

3. Peace of Luneville. — February 9, 1801. Napoleon offered peace; refused by- 
Austria, but Russia was won over. Napoleon in Italy, Moreau in Germany. Austria 
fjrouud between the upper and nether mill stones. Messana defeated. Genoa taken 
by siege, passage of the Alps (Great St. Bernard Pass), Marengo (1800j. Just before 
Marengo, Moreau had defeated the Austrians at Hohenlinden, and the next year, 
February 9, 1801, Peace of Luneville ( where?) Austria thoroughly humiliated Lost 
Tuscany, ttie left bank of the Rhine, and acknowledged the Batavian, Helvetian, 
Cisalpine, and Ligurian Republics. The next year the Peace of Amiens (where?), 
March 27, 1802, with England. Napoleon then caused himself to be elected Consul 
for life. On the 18th May, 1804, he was proclaimed Emperor as Napoleon L 

4. The Russian Campaign. — Soon England, Prussia, Austria and Russia united 
against Napoleon. Battle of Trafalgar (^1805). Nelson: "England expects every man 
to do his duty." Austerlitz. Truce with Austria. Treaty of Pressburg. Prussia 
liumbled. Confederation of the Rhine (180fi\ End of the Holy Roman Empire by the 
abdication of Francis II , Emperor of Austria since 1804. War again with Prussia and 
Russia. Jena and Auerstadt (^1806); Eylau and Friedland (1807). Peace of Tilsit — 
meeting of Alexander, Napoleon and Frederick William on a raft in the Nieraen. Rus- 
sia forced to consent to the dismemberment of Prussia. Duchy of Warsaw formed out 
of her eastern possessions, while she was compelled to cede all her territory between 
the Rhine and the Elbe. But peace could not be maintained, and after Napoleon's 
failure in Spain backed by England — Wellington — and another defeat of Austria — 
Wagram (1809), followed by the peace of Vienna — an invasion of Russia was under- 
taken 1812. The march on Moscow — Borodina; Moscow burned (by the Russians?). 
The retreat — Passage of the Berezina. 

5. Battle of Waterloo. — After the terrible failure of the campaign in Russia, 
Napoleon's enemies once more united against him. — War of Liberation (1813). Along 
series of battles culminating in the battle of Leipzig. ("Battle of the Nations"), Octo- 
ber 16, 18, 19, 1813. Napoleon totally defeated and his army nearly destroyed on the 
retreat — premature destruction of the bridge over the Elster. Allies cross the 
Rhine and enter Paris kfter hard fighting, March 31, 1814. Napoleon made a futile at- 
tempt to poison himself. Was sent to Elba. Soon escaped. The Hundred Days. 
Defeated at Waterloo, June 18, 1815, by Wellington and Blucher,and died at St. Helena 
(where?) 1821. 

6. Establishment of the German Empire, January 18, 1871 — Prussia rapidly re- 
covered after Napoleon's fall — Confederation of the Rhine came to an end 1813 (sec. 
4). German Confederation with Austria and Prussia as leaders 181-5 — 1866. Six weeks 
war thrust Austria out. Prussia formed the North German Confederation 1866. Ger- 
man unity finally achieved through the Franco-Prussian War 1870 — 1871. King of 
Pru.ssia proclaimed at Versailles Emperor of the Germans as William I., January 18, 
1871. The King of Prussia is always to be the Emperor. 



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